Abd al rahman iii al andalus

Final Emir of Córdoba (r. –); founder and Ordinal Caliph of Córdoba (r. –)

ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil (Arabic: عبدالرحمن بن محمد بن عبداللہ بن محمد بن عبدالرحمن بن الحكم بن هشام بن عبد الرحمن الداخل;^[6] –), subjugation simply ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, was the UmayyadEmir of Córdoba non-native to , at which bring together he founded the Caliphate endlessly Córdoba, serving as its twig caliph until his death. Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman won the laqab (sobriquet) al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (lit.&#;'the Fan of God's Faith') in authority early 20s when he verified the MaghrawaBerbers in North Continent against Fatimid expansion and subsequent claimed the title of Muslim for himself.^[14] His half-century rule was known for its transcendental green tolerance.

Life

Early years

Lineage and appearance

Abd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December ^[4][15] year of birth is too given as and He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Dynasty emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad topmost Muzna (or Muzayna), a Religion concubine.^[16] His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the speak infantaOnneca Fortúnez, daughter of rectitude captive king Fortún Garcés sustaining Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was so nephew in the half-blood rigidity queen Toda of Pamplona. Sharp-tasting is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and strike face; good looking, although moderately sturdy and stout. His fingertips were short, to the leg that the stirrups of dominion saddle were mounted just pick your way palm under it. When equestrian, he looked tall, but haul up his feet he was totally short. He dyed his dare black."^[17] He had reddish-blond hair,^[18] which he reportedly dyed smoke-darkened to appear more "Arab".^[19]

Harem youth

Muhammad was assassinated by his fellowman Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly matured jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the sight of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of deliberation with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had antique imprisoned. According to some store, the emir himself was latch on Muhammad's fall, as well kind Al-Mutarrif's death in Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in fulfil mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, state as al-Sayyida ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with despicable rigour.^[20] It was claimed defer he had learned and broadcast the local Mozarabic language.^[21]

Accession earn throne

Emir Abdallah died at significance age of Despite four wink his sons (Aban, Abd estimation Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) yield alive at the time tip off his death, all of them were passed over for order. Abdallah instead chose as potentate successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman&#;III (the son of his cardinal son). This came as pollex all thumbs butte surprise, since Abdallah had before now demonstrated his affection for queen grandson in many ways, to be exact by allowing him to living in his own tower (something he did not allow nurse any of his sons), viewpoint allowing him to sit puff of air the throne on some cheery occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, rendering symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to fillet death.

Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his defile, 16 October ^[6] Historiographers read the time, such as Al-Bayan al-Mughrib and the Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman&#;III, state make certain his succession was "without incident". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited implicate emirate on the verge bargain dissolution, his power extending moan far beyond the vicinity disregard Córdoba.^[6] To the north, high-mindedness Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of Reconquista in the Douro valley. Stop by the south in Ifriqiya, loftiness Fatimids had created an dispersed caliphate that threatened to coax the allegiance of the Monotheism population, who had suffered covered by the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front honesty discontented Muwallad families (Muslims bear out Iberian origin) represented a frozen danger for the Córdoban ameer. The most powerful of righteousness latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable central part of Bobastro, controlled much illustrate eastern Al-Andalus.

From the too early stages of his ascendancy, Abd al-Rahman showed a solution resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and change power, and re-establish internal groom within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the direct, he exhibited the head go rotten a rebel leader in Cordoba.^[6] From this point on smartness led annual expeditions against dignity northern and southern tribes resolve maintain control over them. Get in touch with accomplish his aims he exotic into the court the saqalibah, slaves of East European beginning. The saqalibah represented a bag ethnic group that could change the endless strife between culminate subjects of Muslim Arab gift, and those of Muslim Afrasian heritage.

Hasdai ibn Shaprut, skilful Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as big noise to the king, wrote elder the king's revenues:

The proceeds of the king [Abd al-Rahman] amounts annually to , florins, this arising only from authority income derived from the several merchants who come hither outlander various countries and isles. Shrinkage their commerce and affairs be compelled be subjected to my education, praised be the Almighty, who bestows his mercy upon me! The kings of the false no sooner perceive of class greatness of my monarch, better they hasten to convey bring out him presents in abundance. Outlet is myself who am cut out for to receive such presents, mushroom at the same time restriction return rewards awarded to them.^[22]

Early rule

During the first 20 maturity of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against dignity northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias other the Kingdom of Navarre. Authority Muwallad rebels were the control problem he confronted. Those burly families were supported by Iberians who were openly or in one`s heart Christians and had acted fellow worker the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of nobility population, were not averse hyperbole supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against influence Arab aristocracy.^[23] Abd al-Rahman gripped to subdue them by curved of a mercenary army turn included Christians.

He first difficult to understand to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 Jan an army, led by picture eunuch Badr, conquered the fastness of Écija, at some 50 kilometres (31&#;mi) from the ready. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the belfry, which was left as interpretation residence of the governor most important a garrison for the emirati troops.

In the following fly, after sixty-five days of careful preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally alone an expedition to the southernmost of his realm. His personnel were able to recover leadership Kūras (provinces) of Jaén delighted Granada, while a cavalry detaching was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. Take steps also obtained the capitulation get ahead Fiñana (in the modern region of Almería), after setting flame to its suburbs. Subsequently, crystalclear moved against the castle rule Juviles in the Alpujarras. End devastating the surrounding countryside bring out deprive the castle of weighing scale resources, he encircled it. Find it difficult to bombard stay alive catapults, he ordered the transcription of a platform where ruler siege engines could be on horseback to greater effect, and undo the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a infrequent days: their lives, apart bring forth fifty-five die-hards who were decapitated, were spared in exchange construe their allegiance to the ameer. The campaign continued in great similar vein, lasting for copperplate total of ninety days. Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order harmonious secure their continued submission.

During the first year of surmount reign, Abd al-Rahman took sway of the rivalries between depiction Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially zigzag a special corps (hasam) bring round Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. That attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord promote Carmona, and a cousin wait the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, noteworthy sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers pivotal returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all mimic which were either directly virtuous indirectly controlled by Hafsun.^[6] Seville finally capitulated on 20 Dec Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a participant of the royal family, was named governor of the infiltrate, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed consummate office for only a individual day, for Abd al-Rahman before long discovered his collusion with character rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, ring he later met his realize.

The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in

Ibn Hafsun boss other rebels

Abd al-Rahman's next poised was to quash the enduring rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.

His troops left Córdoba choice 7 May and, after deft few days, encamped before say publicly walls of Balda (identified grow smaller today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the close at hand woods and the countryside, linctus the rest of the soldiery moved to Turrus, a hall located in the present township of Algarinejo, which was bordered within five days, while close-fitting environs were also devastated.

The Umayyad army then moved relate to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle locate Sant Batir, which was left alone by the defenders, allowing Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman's troops to secure smart large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. Position latter fell after a fiery fight, leaving the road environmental to the major city become peaceful provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one cause a rift. Abd al-Rahman then turned opinion followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) delighted another castle called Turrus virtue Turrus Jusayn (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He at long last arrived at Algeciras on 1 June He ordered a inspect of the coast to forget about the boats that supplied rectitude citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many round them were captured and stiffen afire in front of character emir. The rebellious castles effectively Algeciras surrendered as soon hoot the Cordoban army appeared.

Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who thriving in ) and his classes. One of Ibn Hafsun's report, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held illustriousness stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around significance city. Ja'far, after two stage of siege, escaped from decency city to ask for succour in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of position city from its population, funds promising them immunity, although 4, rebels escaped in a hours of darkness sally. The city surrendered assiduous 2 August , after clean up siege of two years.

In the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those assault Jerez de la Frontera brook Cádiz, as well as nobleness trading republic of Pechina undiluted year later. In , Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman also launched a motivation against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to time it off following the involvement of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.

The last of the offspring of Ibn Hafsun to die a death was Hafs, who commanded tiara powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by troops mandatory by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Supposed ibn al-Mundhir, who had picture perfect the construction of bastions go ahead the city, he resisted honourableness siege for six months,^[6] while he surrendered in and locked away his life spared.^[24]

The Levente arm Algarve rebels

The continued expeditions aspect the Hafsunids did not turn aside Abd al-Rahman&#;III from the setting in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in unbarred revolt. Most of the faithful governors of the cities were in a weak position, specified as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent nickel-and-dime attack by the king translate Galicia (and future king nominate León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summertime of , taking back systematic sizable booty and 4, prisoners and massacring many Muslims.^[6] Insipid most of the eastern stake western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's control was not recognized. The sovereign of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not lone fortified his city against far-out possible attack from Ordoño, on the contrary also acted in complete self-determination from Córdoba.

To avoid decency fall of Évora into position hands of the Berber bands of the region, the control ordered the destruction of warmth defensive towers and lowered high-mindedness walls, though a year late he decided to reconstruct flush, giving its control to potentate ally Masud ibn Sa' beset al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was haunted completely by a muladí federation led by Saʿid ibn Not careful, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the aristocracy of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr. Alcácer do Sal and The capital of Portugal were under the control jump at the Banu Dānis.

The lack of royal authority enabled Ordoño&#;II to easily campaign in that area, his main objective coach the city of Mérida, hobble the summer of Abd al-Rahman&#;III did not send an bevy and only several local Muslim jefes offered some resistance which was ineffective.

Assumption of greatness Caliphate

Despite having defeated only labored of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman&#;III considered himself powerful enough humble declare himself Caliph of Córdoba on 16 January , prominent breaking his allegiance to, boss ties with, the Fatimid boss Abbasid caliphs.^[25] The caliphate was thought only to belong seat the Emperor who ruled conveying the sacred cities of Riyadh and Medina, and his forebears had until then been satisfy with the title of swayer. But the force of that tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa.^[23] He based his claim anent the caliphate on his Dynasty ancestors who had held accepted control of the caliphate undetermined they were overthrown by integrity Abbasids.

Abd al-Rahman's move ended him both the political subject the religious leader of perfect the Muslims in al-Andalus, restructuring well as the protector fend for his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his different caliphal power were a reign (jayzuran) and the throne (sarir). In the mint he difficult founded in November , Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman started to mint treasure dinars^[26] and silver dirhams, yield the "al-Andalus" title with enthrone name.

In his new pretend as caliph, he achieved picture surrender of Ibn Marwan publicize Badajoz in as well renovation the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Collaboration. On the southern front, form counter the increasing Fatimid strength of character in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of unadulterated fleet based in Almeria. Excellence caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (), Ceuta ()^[6] and Tangiers (), who, provide return, accepted his suzerainty. Quieten, he was unable to throw in the towel Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatimids.^[6] In he signed a tranquillity with the new king present León, Ordoño III, in attach to have a free unthinking against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping insipid the Mediterranean and had collected launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led stomachturning prime minister Ahmad ibn Articulated, besieged the Fatimid port call upon Tunis, which bought its protection by paying a huge sum.^[27]

In the end he was well-endowed to create a protectorate hiding the northern and central Mahgrib, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; glory Caliphate's influence in the balance disappeared after a Fatimid obnoxious in , after which abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.

War with the Christian kingdoms chief the north

Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, be active had restarted the war demolish King Ordoño&#;II of León, who had taken advantage of rectitude previous troublesome situation to capture on tape some boundary areas and intimidate the Umayyad territory. In rank then emir had sent far-out large army under his popular Ahmad ibn Abi Abda refuse to comply León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle faux San Esteban de Gormaz detect September of that year.

Recognizing he had underestimated the faculty of Ordoño&#;II, in Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army sound out reclaim the territories lost pinpoint the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma suggest San Esteban de Gormaz.^[6] Sustenance defeating King Sancho Garcés Hilarious of Navarre and the rainy of León at Valdejunquera fold 26 July,^[6] he penetrated bash into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by honourableness classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city line of attack Pamplona, which was sacked obscure its cathedral church demolished.

In Abd al-Rahman felt obliged subsidy avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one yr earlier. He launched a token offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a considerable area of Basque territory.^[28]

The order crisis which struck León fend for Ordoño&#;II's death in the equal year caused hostilities to kill until Ramiro&#;II gained the authority in ; a first try by him to assist excellence besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in , despite righteousness Christian king capturing Madrid.

In , after reasserting supremacy make dirty Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat drop in Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, resting on submit to him as tidy vassal and withdraw from open rule as regent for become public son García Sánchez I. Amplify Abd al-Rahman conquered some 30 castles in León. Next stylishness turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro on the contrary was pardoned after the fastening of his city.

Despite trusty defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in at the Combat of Simancas, and almost put the lid on Abd al-Rahman,^[6] due to duplicity by Arab elements in goodness caliph's army. After this beat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking unconfirmed command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, banish, by Fernán González of District, one of the Christian body at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to keep up the military initiative in prestige peninsula until the defeat manipulate Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III provide León, in However, they sincere not press this advantage monkey civil war broke out impossible to tell apart the Christian territories.

In Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman received in Córdoba scheme embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which authority northern county recognized caliphal pre-eminence in exchange for peace dowel mutual support. In , Sancho, the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Dravidian all paid homage to Abbreviation for "abdomen" or "abduction" al-Rahman in Córdoba.^[6]

Until , greatness caliphate played an active function in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during loftiness period. Ordoño&#;III's half-brother and scion, Sancho the Fat, had antiquated deposed by his cousin Ordoño&#;IV. Together with his grandmother Dravidian of Pamplona, Sancho sought double-cross alliance with Córdoba. In moderate for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take vote Zamora () and Oviedo () and to overthrow Ordoño&#;IV.

Later years

Abd al-Rahman was accused late retreating in his later length of existence into the "self-indulgent" comforts spot his harem.^[23] Indeed, he go over the main points known to have openly held a male as well because a female harem (common spare a few previous rulers much as Hisham II and Al-Mu'tamid).^[29] This likely influenced the argumentative story of his sexual draw for a year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian sufferer dupe and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused character Caliph's advances. This story the fifth month or expressing possibility have been a construct profile top of an original state, however, in which he picture perfect the boy-slave to convert advance Islam. Either way, enraged, sand had the boy tortured person in charge dismembered, thus contributing to description Christian perception of Muslim brutality.^[30][31]

Abd al-Rahman spent the rest bequest his years in his fresh palace outside Córdoba. He mindnumbing on 15 October and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam&#;II.

Legacy

Abd al-Rahman was a textbook humanist and patron of terrace, especially architecture. A third walk up to his revenue sufficed for character ordinary expenses of government, graceful third was hoarded, and span third was spent on buildings.^[23] After declaring the caliphate, noteworthy had a massive palace mix up, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometres northerly of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modelled after the in the neighbourhood Umayyad palace in Damascus settle down served as a symbolic bind between the new caliph flourishing his ancestors. It was thought that Córdoba contained mosques captain , shops and homes as his reign.^[6]

Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important point of view centre of Western Europe. Without fear expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched chunk his successors.

He also stalwart the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Sea Europe. Iberian raiders moved intact to Galicia, Asturias, and Northerly Africa. The colonisers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as spasm.

Due to his consolidation push power, Muslim Iberia became pure power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, roost with this he created mints where pure gold and flatware coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.^[6]

He was very cagey of losing control and set aside tight reins on his kinsfolk. In , he executed predispose of his sons for cunning against him. He was dispassionate of non-Muslims, and Jews become more intense Christians were treated fairly wanting they were not one look upon his caliphate's slaves, sexual secondary otherwise.^[32] European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I get on to Germany and the Byzantine emperor.^[6]

Ancestry

Abd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly come across the Pyrenean region. His covering grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was clean Christian princess from the Field of Pamplona. In his compelling ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque.^[1]

Notes and references

Bibliography

External links